A three-dimensional model of emotional display rules: Model invariance, external validity, and gender differences

Summary

This paper tested a three-dimensional structure of emotional display rules — the social norms people hold about which emotions should be expressed or suppressed. Using confirmatory factor analysis across two samples, the authors distinguished harmonious or affiliative emotions (e.g., happiness, sympathy), vulnerable emotions (e.g., sadness, shame), and disharmonious or dominant emotions (e.g., anger, contempt). The model fit well and was invariant across the two samples, between men and women, across stages of the adult lifespan, and across three rule-types. It also showed sound internal consistency and external validity, correlating with individual differences in emotion regulation, emotion beliefs, and social anxiety. Gender analyses found that men and women did not differ in their rules for themselves, but each gender endorsed distinct expectations about who should control emotional expressivity.